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Periodic Table
Periodic

Molybdenum

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Molybdenum

Atomic Mass	95.95
Configuración de electrones	[Kr]5s14d5
Estados de oxidación	+6
Año Descubrido	1778

Molybdenum

Atomic Mass	95.95
Configuración de electrones	[Kr]5s14d5
Estados de oxidación	+6
Año Descubrido	1778

Identifiers

Element Name	Molybdenum
Element Symbol	Mo
InChI	InChI=1S/Mo
InChIKey	ZOKXTWBITQBERF-UHFFFAOYSA-N

Propiedades

Atomic Weight	95.95(1) 95.95 95.96 95.95(1)
Electron Configuration	[Kr]5s¹4d⁵
Atomic Radius	Van der Waals Atomic Radius : 209 pm (Van der Waals) Empirical Atomic Radius : 145pm (Empirical) Covalent Atomic Radius : 154(5) pm (Covalent)
Oxidation States	+6 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, -1, -2, -4 (a strongly acidic oxide)
Ground Level	⁷S₃
Ionization Energy	7.092 eV 7.09243 ± 0.00004 eV
Electronegativity	Pauling Scale Electronegativity : 2.16(Pauling Scale) Allen Scale Electronegativity : 1.47(Allen Scale)
Electron Affinity	0.746eV 1.18eV
Atomic Spectra	Lines Holdings Levels Holdings
Physical Description	Solid
Element Classification	Metal
Element Period Number	5
Element Group Number	6
Density	10.2 grams per cubic centimeter
Melting Point	2896 K (2623°C or 4753°F) 2623°C
Boiling Point	4912 K (4639°C or 8382°F) 4639°C
Estimated Crustal Abundance	1.2 milligrams per kilogram
Estimated Oceanic Abundance	1×10^-2 milligrams per liter

Historia

The name derives from the Greek molybdos for "lead". The ancients used the term "lead" for any black mineral that leaves a mark on paper. Molybdenum was discovered by the Swedish pharmacist and chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1778. It was first isolated by the Swedish chemist Peter-Jacob Hjelm in 1781.

Molybdenum was discovered by Carl Welhelm Scheele, a Swedish chemist, in 1778 in a mineral known as molybdenite (MoS2) which had been confused as a lead compound. Molybdenum was isolated by Peter Jacob Hjelm in 1781. Today, most molybdenum is obtained from molybdenite, wulfenite (PbMoO4) and powellite (CaMoO4). These ores typically occur in conjunction with ores of tin and tungsten. Molybdenum is also obtained as a byproduct of mining and processing tungsten and copper.

From the Greek word molybdo, lead. Before Scheele recognized molybdenite as a distinct ore of a new element in 1778, it was confused with graphite and lead ore. The metal was prepared in impure form in 1782 by Hjelm. Molybdenum does not occur natively, but is obtained principally from molybdenite. Wulfenite, and Powellite are also minor commercial ores.

Historical Atomic Weights

Year	Atomic Weight (uncertainty) [u]	Reference
2013	95.95(1)	https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0305
2007	95.96(2)	https://doi.org/10.1351/PAC-REP-09-08-03
2001	95.94(2)	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac200375081107
1975	95.94(1)	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac197647010075
1969	95.94(3)	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac197021010091
1961	95.94	https://doi.org/10.1021/ja00881a001
1938	95.95	https://doi.org/10.1039/JR9380001101
1902	96.0	https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01370337

Historical Isotopic Abundances

Year	Isotope	Abundance (uncertainty)	Reference
2013	⁹²Mo	0.146 49(106)	https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0503
2013	⁹⁴Mo	0.091 87(33)	https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0503
2013	⁹⁵Mo	0.158 73(30)	https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0503
2013	⁹⁶Mo	0.166 73(8)	https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0503
2013	⁹⁷Mo	0.095 82(15)	https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0503
2013	⁹⁸Mo	0.242 92(80)	https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0503
2013	¹⁰⁰Mo	0.097 44(65)	https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0503
2009	⁹²Mo	0.1453(30)	https://doi.org/10.1351/PAC-REP-10-06-02
2009	⁹⁴Mo	0.0915(9)	https://doi.org/10.1351/PAC-REP-10-06-02
2009	⁹⁵Mo	0.1584(11)	https://doi.org/10.1351/PAC-REP-10-06-02
2009	⁹⁶Mo	0.1667(15)	https://doi.org/10.1351/PAC-REP-10-06-02
2009	⁹⁷Mo	0.0960(14)	https://doi.org/10.1351/PAC-REP-10-06-02
2009	⁹⁸Mo	0.2439(37)	https://doi.org/10.1351/PAC-REP-10-06-02
2009	¹⁰⁰Mo	0.0982(31)	https://doi.org/10.1351/PAC-REP-10-06-02
2001	⁹²Mo	0.1477(31)	https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1836764
2001	⁹⁴Mo	0.0923(10)	https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1836764
2001	⁹⁵Mo	0.1590(9)	https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1836764
2001	⁹⁶Mo	0.1668(1)	https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1836764
2001	⁹⁷Mo	0.0956(5)	https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1836764
2001	⁹⁸Mo	0.2419(26)	https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1836764
2001	¹⁰⁰Mo	0.0967(20)	https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1836764
1997	⁹²Mo	0.1484(35)	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac199870010217
1997	⁹⁴Mo	0.0925(12)	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac199870010217
1997	⁹⁵Mo	0.1592(13)	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac199870010217
1997	⁹⁶Mo	0.1668(2)	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac199870010217
1997	⁹⁷Mo	0.0955(8)	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac199870010217
1997	⁹⁸Mo	0.2413(31)	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac199870010217
1997	¹⁰⁰Mo	0.0963(23)	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac199870010217
1989	⁹²Mo	0.1484(4)	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac199163070991
1989	⁹⁴Mo	0.0925(3)	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac199163070991
1989	⁹⁵Mo	0.1592(5)	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac199163070991
1989	⁹⁶Mo	0.1668(5)	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac199163070991
1989	⁹⁷Mo	0.0955(3)	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac199163070991
1989	⁹⁸Mo	0.2413(7)	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac199163070991
1989	¹⁰⁰Mo	0.0963(3)	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac199163070991
1979	⁹²Mo	0.1484(2)	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac198052102349
1979	⁹⁴Mo	0.0925(1)	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac198052102349
1979	⁹⁵Mo	0.1592(2)	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac198052102349
1979	⁹⁶Mo	0.1668(2)	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac198052102349
1979	⁹⁷Mo	0.0955(1)	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac198052102349
1979	⁹⁸Mo	0.2413(3)	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac198052102349
1979	¹⁰⁰Mo	0.0963(1)	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac198052102349
1975	⁹²Mo	0.148	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac197647010075
1975	⁹⁴Mo	0.093	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac197647010075
1975	⁹⁵Mo	0.159	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac197647010075
1975	⁹⁶Mo	0.167	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac197647010075
1975	⁹⁷Mo	0.096	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac197647010075
1975	⁹⁸Mo	0.241	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac197647010075
1975	¹⁰⁰Mo	0.096	https://doi.org/10.1351/pac197647010075

Descripción

The metal is silvery white, very hard, but is softer and more ductile than tungsten. It has a high elastic modulus, and only tungsten and tantalum, of the more readily available metals, have higher melting points. It is a valuable alloying agent, as it contributes to the hardenability and toughness of quenched and tempered steels. It also improves the strength of steel at high temperatures.

Usuarios

Molybdenum has a high melting point and is used to make the electrodes of electrically heated glass furnaces. Some electrical filaments are also made from molybdenum. The metal is used to make some missile and aircraft parts and is used in the nuclear power industry. Molybdenum is also used as a catalyst in the refining of petroleum.

Molybdenum is primarily used as an alloying agent in steel. When added to steel in concentrations between 0.25% and 8%, molybdenum forms ultra-high strength steels that can withstand pressures up to 300,000 pounds per square inch. Molybdenum also improves the strength of steel at high temperatures. When alloyed with nickel, molybdenum forms heat and corrosion resistant materials used in the chemical industry.

Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), one of molybdenum's compounds, is used as a high temperature lubricant. Molybdenum trioxide (MoO3), another molybdenum compound, is used to adhere enamels to metals. Other molybdenum compounds include: molybdic acid (H2MoO4), molybdenum hexafluoride (MoF6) and molybdenum phosphide (MoP2).

It is used in certain nickel-based alloys, such as the "Hastelloys(R)" which are heat-resistant and corrosion-resistant to chemical solutions. Molybdenum oxidizes at elevated temperatures. The metal has found recent application as electrodes for electrically heated glass furnaces and forehearths. The metal is also used in nuclear energy applications and for missile and aircraft parts. Molybdenum is valuable as a catalyst in the refining of petroleum. It has found applications as a filament material in electronic and electrical applications. Molybdenum is an essential trace element in plant nutrition; some lands are barren for lack of this element in the soil. Molybdenum sulfide is useful as a lubricant, especially at high temperatures where oils would decompose. Almost all ultra-high strength steels with minimum yield points up to 300,000 psi (lb/in.2) contain molybdenum in amounts from 0.25 to 8%. Biologically, molybdenum as a trace element is necessary for nitrogen fixation and other metabolic processes.

Sources

Molybdenum is also recovered as a by-product of copper and tungsten mining operations. The metal is prepared from the powder made by the hydrogen reduction of purified molybdic trioxide or ammonium molybdate.

Compounds

See more information at the Molybdenum compound page.

Element Forms

CID	Name	Formula	SMILES	Molecular Weight
23932	molybdenum	Mo	[Mo]	95.95
185498	molybdenum(2+)	Mo+2	[Mo+2]	95.95
25087173	molybdenum-98	Mo	[98Mo]	97.905404
5460463	molybdenum(4+)	Mo+4	[Mo+4]	95.95
104976	molybdenum-99	Mo	[99Mo]	98.907707
161024	molybdenum-93	Mo	[93Mo]	92.906809
25087172	molybdenum-97	Mo	[97Mo]	96.906017
42626459	molybdenum-95	Mo	[95Mo]	94.905837
177619	molybdenum-90	Mo	[90Mo]	89.91393
178175	molybdenum-101	Mo	[101Mo]	100.910338
10125049	molybdenum(3+)	Mo+3	[Mo+3]	95.95
25087152	molybdenum-92	Mo	[92Mo]	91.906807
25087161	molybdenum-96	Mo	[96Mo]	95.904675
53330917	molybdenum-100	Mo	[100Mo]	99.907468
131708375	molybdenum-94	Mo	[94Mo]	93.905084

Isotopes

Stable Isotope Count	6

Isotopes in Earth/Planetary Science

Molybdenites display a variation in isotopic composition (Fig. IUPAC.42.1) [316]. The isotopic composition of molybdenum in ocean sediments depends on oxygen levels in the ocean. When oxygen levels are high, the lighter isotopes of molybdenum are scavenged by iron and manganese oxides into sediments. However, when oxygen levels are low, the mechanism for molybdenum removal becomes more efficient and more of the heavier isotopes of molybdenum are found in iron and manganese oxides. Thus, the molybdenum isotopic composition of these sediments can be used as a proxy for oxygen levels in the paleo oceans (history of the oceans in the geological past) to gain insights into mechanisms that may have been responsible for mass-extinction events in the Earth’s history [317].

Fig. IUPAC.42.1: Cross plot of n(⁹⁸Mo)/n(⁹⁵Mo) isotope-amount ratio and n(⁹⁷Mo)/n(⁹⁵Mo) isotope-amount ratio of selected molybdenum-bearing materials (modified from [316]), assuming a measured n(⁹⁸Mo)/n(⁹⁵Mo) isotope-amount ratio of 1.530 40 and a measured n(⁹⁷Mo)/n(⁹⁵Mo) isotope-amount ratio of 0.603 67 [318].

[316] A. J. Pietruszka, R. J. Walker, P. A. Candela. Chem. Geol.225, 121 (2006).

[317] B. C. Proemse, S. E. Grasby, M. E. Wieser, B. Mayer, B. Beauchamp. Geology41, 967 (2013).

[318] A. J. Mayer, M. E. Wieser. J. Anal. At. Spectrom.29, 85 (2014).

Isotopes in Industry

Depleted 95Mo has been used in the High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (Tennessee, USA). The use of U-10Mo fuel elements (90 percent uranium, 10 percent molybdenum) would allow the conversion from high-enrichment uranium (HEU) fuel, 92 percent, to low-enrichment uranium (LEU) fuel, below 20 percent, for nuclear non-proliferation purposes [319].

[319] S. Mirzadeh, F. F. Knapp Jr., E. D. Collins. 5774782, Filed.

Isotopes Used as a Source of Radioactive Isotope(s)

95Mo is used to produce medical radioisotope 97Ru via the 95Mo (4He, 2n) 97Ru reaction. The isotope 99Mo is commercially produced by the fission of 235U and is the parent radionuclide of 99mTc, which is the most widely used radiopharmaceutical in the world. The much longer half-life of 99Mo (about 66 h) enables the radionuclide to be transported more easily than the short-lived (6 h half-life) 99mTc. The n(99Mo)/n(99mTc) amount-ratio generator was originally developed at Brookhaven National Laboratory (Fig. IUPAC.42.2) in the early 1960s and is now a patented system [320].

Fig. IUPAC.42.2: Pictured above is Brookhaven National Laboratory where the n(⁹⁹Mo)/n(⁹⁹ᵐTc) amount-ratio generator was originally developed in the early 1960s. (Picture Source: Brookhaven National Laboratory) [321].

[320] U. Abram, R. Alberto. J. Braz. Chem. Soc.17, 1486 (2006).

[321] Brookhaven National Laboratory. About Brookhaven National Laboratory, Brookhaven National Laboratory (2014), Feb. 26; http://www.bnl.gov/about/.

Isotope Mass and Abundance

Isotope	Atomic Mass (uncertainty) [u]	Abundance (uncertainty)
⁹²Mo	91.906 807(1)	0.146 49(106)	0.1453(30)
⁹⁴Mo	93.905 084(1)	0.091 87(33)	0.0915(9)
⁹⁵Mo	94.905 8374(8)	0.158 73(30)	0.1584(11)
⁹⁶Mo	95.904 6748(8)	0.166 73(8)	0.1667(15)
⁹⁷Mo	96.906 017(1)	0.095 82(15)	0.0960(14)
⁹⁸Mo	97.905 404(1)	0.242 92(80)	0.2439(37)
¹⁰⁰Mo	99.907 468(2)	0.097 44(65)	0.0982(31)

Atomic Mass, Half Life, and Decay

Nuclide	Atomic Mass and Uncertainty [u]	Half Life and Uncertainty	Discovery Year	Decay Modes, Intensities and Uncertainties [%]
⁸¹Mo	80.966226 ± 0.000537 [Estimated]	1 ms >400ns [Estimated]	2013	β⁺ ?; β⁺p ?
⁸²Mo	81.956661 ± 0.000429 [Estimated]	30 ms >400ns [Estimated]	2013	β⁺ ?; β⁺p ?
⁸³Mo	82.950252 ± 0.00043 [Estimated]	23 ms ± 19	1999	β⁺=100%; β⁺p ?
⁸⁴Mo	83.941846 ± 0.00032 [Estimated]	2.3 s ± 0.3	1991	β⁺=100%; β⁺p ?
⁸⁵Mo	84.938260736 ± 0.000017	3.2 s ± 0.2	1992	β⁺=100%; β⁺p=0.14±0.2%
⁸⁶Mo	85.931174092 ± 0.000003147	19.1 s ± 0.3	1991	β⁺=100%
⁸⁷Mo	86.928196198 ± 0.000003067	14.1 s ± 0.3	1977	β⁺=100%; β⁺p=15±0.5%
⁸⁸Mo	87.921967779 ± 0.0000041	8.0 m ± 0.2	1971	β⁺=100%
⁸⁹Mo	88.919468149 ± 0.0000042	2.11 m ± 0.10	1980	β⁺=100%
⁸⁹Mo^m	88.919468149 ± 0.0000042	190 ms ± 15	1980	IT=100%
⁹⁰Mo	89.913931270 ± 0.000003717	5.56 h ± 0.09	1953	β⁺=100%
⁹⁰Mo^m	89.913931270 ± 0.000003717	1.14 us ± 0.05	1971	IT=100%
⁹¹Mo	90.911745190 ± 0.000006696	15.49 m ± 0.01	1948	β⁺=100%
⁹¹Mo^m	90.911745190 ± 0.000006696	64.6 s ± 0.6	1953	IT=50.0±1.6%; β⁺=50.0±1.6%
⁹²Mo	91.906807153 ± 0.000000168	Stable >190Ey	1930	IS=14.649±10.6%; 2β⁺ ?
⁹²Mo^m	91.906807153 ± 0.000000168	190 ns ± 3	1964	IT=100%
⁹³Mo	92.906808772 ± 0.000000193	4.0 ky ± 0.8	1946	ε=100%
⁹³Mo^m	92.906808772 ± 0.000000193	6.85 h ± 0.07	1950	IT=99.88±0.1%; β⁺=0.12±0.1%
⁹³Moⁿ	92.906808772 ± 0.000000193	1.8 us ± 1.0	2005	IT=100%
⁹⁴Mo	93.905083586 ± 0.000000151	Stable	1930	IS=9.187±3.3%
⁹⁵Mo	94.905837436 ± 0.000000132	Stable	1930	IS=15.873±3%
⁹⁶Mo	95.904674770 ± 0.000000128	Stable	1930	IS=16.673±0.8%
⁹⁷Mo	96.906016903 ± 0.000000176	Stable	1930	IS=9.582±1.5%
⁹⁸Mo	97.905403609 ± 0.000000186	Stable >100Ty	1930	IS=24.292±8%; 2β^- ?
⁹⁹Mo	98.907707299 ± 0.000000245	65.932 h ± 0.005	1948	β^-=100%
⁹⁹Mo^m	98.907707299 ± 0.000000245	15.5 us ± 0.2	1958	IT=100%
⁹⁹Moⁿ	98.907707299 ± 0.000000245	760 ns ± 60	1975	IT=100%
¹⁰⁰Mo	99.907467982 ± 0.000000322	7.07 Ey ± 0.14	1930	IS=9.744±6.5%; 2β^-=100%
¹⁰¹Mo	100.910337648 ± 0.000000331	14.61 m ± 0.03	1941	β^-=100%
¹⁰¹Mo^m	100.910337648 ± 0.000000331	226 ns ± 7	1977	IT=100%
¹⁰¹Moⁿ	100.910337648 ± 0.000000331	133 ns ± 70	1977	IT=100%
¹⁰²Mo	101.910293725 ± 0.000008916	11.3 m ± 0.2	1954	β^-=100%
¹⁰³Mo	102.913091954 ± 0.0000099	67.5 s ± 1.5	1963	β^-=100%
¹⁰⁴Mo	103.913747443 ± 0.000009566	60 s ± 2	1962	β^-=100%
¹⁰⁵Mo	104.916981989 ± 0.000009721	36.3 s ± 0.8	1962	β^-=100%
¹⁰⁶Mo	105.918273231 ± 0.000009801	8.73 s ± 0.12	1969	β^-=100%
¹⁰⁷Mo	106.922119770 ± 0.000009901	3.5 s ± 0.5	1972	β^-=100%
¹⁰⁷Mo^m	106.922119770 ± 0.000009901	445 ns ± 21	1976	IT=100%
¹⁰⁸Mo	107.924047508 ± 0.000009901	1.105 s ± 0.010	1972	β^-=100%; β^-n<0.5%
¹⁰⁹Mo	108.928438318 ± 0.000012	700 ms ± 14	1992	β^-=100%; β^-n=1.3±0.6%
¹⁰⁹Mo^m	108.928438318 ± 0.000012	210 ns ± 60	2012	IT=100%
¹¹⁰Mo	109.930717956 ± 0.000026	292 ms ± 7	1992	β^-=100%; β^-n=2.0±0.7%
¹¹¹Mo	110.935651966 ± 0.000013503	193.6 ms ± 4.4	1994	β^-=100%; β^-n<12%
¹¹¹Mo^m	110.935651966 ± 0.000013503	~200 ms	2011	β^-=100%; β^-n ?
¹¹²Mo	111.938293 ± 0.000215 [Estimated]	125 ms ± 5	1994	β^-=100%; β^-n ?
¹¹³Mo	112.943478 ± 0.000322 [Estimated]	80 ms ± 2	1994	β^-=100%; β^-n ?
¹¹⁴Mo	113.946666 ± 0.000322 [Estimated]	58 ms ± 2	1997	β^-=100%; β^-n ?
¹¹⁵Mo	114.952174 ± 0.000429 [Estimated]	45.5 ms ± 2.0	2010	β^-=100%; β^-n ?; β^-2n ?
¹¹⁶Mo	115.955759 ± 0.000537 [Estimated]	32 ms ± 4	2010	β^-=100%; β^-n ?; β^-2n ?
¹¹⁷Mo	116.961686 ± 0.000537 [Estimated]	22 ms ± 5	2010	β^-=100%; β^-n ?; β^-2n ?
¹¹⁸Mo	117.965249 ± 0.000537 [Estimated]	21 ms ± 6	2015	β^-=100%; β^-n ?; β^-2n ?
¹¹⁹Mo	118.971465 ± 0.000322 [Estimated]	12 ms >550ns [Estimated]	2018	β^- ?; β^-n ?; β^-2n ?

Fuentes de información

1. PubChem

https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
2. Atomic Mass Data Center (AMDC), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

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https://www-nds.iaea.org/disclaimer.html

Mo
https://www-nds.iaea.org/amdc/
3. IUPAC Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights (CIAAW)

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http://www.ciaaw.org/bylaws.htm

Molybdenum
https://www.ciaaw.org/molybdenum.htm
4. Jefferson Lab, U.S. Department of Energy

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Please see citation and linking information https https://www.jlab.org/privacy-and-security-notice

Molybdenum
https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele042.html
5. Los Alamos National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy

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https://about.lanl.gov/lanl-resources/web-policies/

Molybdenum
https://periodic.lanl.gov/42.shtml
6. NIST Physical Measurement Laboratory

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https://www.nist.gov/pml/database-disclaimer

Molybdenum
https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Elements/elInfo.pl?element=42
7. IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements and Isotopes (IPTEI)

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Copyright (c) 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) contribution within Pubchem is provided under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license, unless otherwise stated.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/

https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703
8. PubChem Elements

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https://www.nlm.nih.gov/copyright.html

Molybdenum

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