Neuropeptides constitute the central integrative layer of energy homeostasis regulation. The hypothalamus–brainstem network continuously receives signals from the gastrointestinal tract, adipose tissue, pancreas, liver, and circulating nutrient substrates, and in turn reshapes feeding, ...
Cellular metabolic enzymes are not merely responsible for the chemical conversion of “substrate to product”; they form a highly coupled functional system spanning energy supply, redox homeostasis, and signal transduction.
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